Climate of the Past www.clim-past.net 1814-9324 1814-9332 6 1 2010 10.5194/cp-6-19-2010 http://www.clim-past.net/6/19/2010/ http://www.clim-past.net/6/19/2010/cp-6-19-2010.html http://www.clim-past.net/6/19/2010/cp-6-19-2010.pdf 19 29 2010-01-19 Sea level ~400 000 years ago (MIS 11): analogue for present and future sea-level? D. Q. Bowen bowendq@cardiff.ac.uk School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3YE, UK Comparison of the sea-level today with that of 400 000 years ago (MIS 11), when the Earth's orbital characteristics were similar may provide, under conditions of natural variability, indications of future sea-level during the present interglacial. Then, as now, orbital eccentricity was low and precession dampened. Evidence for MIS 11 sea-level occurs on uplifting coastlines where shorelines with geochronological ages have been preserved. The sea-level term and the uplift term may be separated with an "uplift correction" formula. This discovers the original sea-level at which the now uplifted shoreline was fashioned. Estimates are based on average uplift rates of the "last interglacial" sea-level (MIS 5.5) using a range of estimates for sea-level and age at that time at different locations. These, with varying secular tectonic regimes in different ocean basins, provide a band of estimates for the MIS 11 sea-level. They do not support the hypothesis of an MIS 11 sea-level at ~20 m, and instead show that it was closer to its present level. Alley, R. B., Clark, P. U., Huybrechts, P., and Joughin, I.: Ice-Sheet and Sea-Level Changes, Science, 310, 456–460, 2005. Bard, E., Jounnic, C., Hamelin, B., Pirazzoli, P., Arnold, M., Faure, G., and Sumosusastro, S.: Pleistocene sea-levels and tectonic uplift based on dating of corals from Sumba Island, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1473–1476, 1996. Bard, E., Antonioli, F., and Silenzi, S.: Sea-level during the antepenultimate interglacial period based on submerged stalagmite from Argentarola Cave, Earth Planet Sc. Lett., 196, 135–146, 2002. Bassinot, F. C., Labeyrie, L. D., Vincent, E., Quidelleur, X., Shackleton, N. J., and Lancelot, Y.: The astronomical theory of climate and the age of the Brunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal, Earth Planet Sc. Lett., 126, 91–108, 1994. Bender, M. L., Fairbanks, R. G., Taylor, F. W., Matthews, R. K., Goddard, J. G., and Broecker, W. S.: Uranium-series dating of the reef tracts of Barbados, West Indies, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 90, 577–594, 1979. Berger, G. W., Pillans, B. J., and Palmer, A. S.: Dating loess up to 800 ka by thermoluminescence, Geology, 20, 403–406, 1992. Berger, G. W., Perez-Honza. E., Carbonell, E., Arsuaga, J. L., Bermua, J.-M., Castro, D., and Ku, T. L.: Luminescence chronology of cave sediments at the Atapuerca paleoanthropological site, Spain, J. Hum. Evol., 55, 300–311, 2008. Berger, W. H. and Loutre, M. F.: An exceptionally long interglacial ahead, Science, 297, 1287–1288, 2002. Bloom, A. L., Broecker, W. S., Chappell, J., Matthews, R. L., and Mesolella, K. J.: Quaternary sea-level fluctuations on a tectonic coast: New $^230$Th/$^238$U U-series from Huon Peninsula, New Guinea, Quaternary Res., 4, 185–205, 1974. Bowen, D. Q.: +23 m Sea Level in Southern Britain, in: Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 11 and associated Terrestrial Records, edited by: Poore, R. Z., Burkle, L., Droxler, A., and McNulty, W. E., US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey Open File Report, 99–312, 15–17, 1999. Bowen, D. Q.: In search of the stage 11 sea level: traces on the global shore, XVI INQUA Congress, Reno, Nevada, 126, 2003a. Bowen, D. Q.: Uncertainty in oxygen isotope stage 11 sea-level: an estimate 13±2 m above low water from Great Britain, in: Earth's Climate and Orbital Eccentricity: The Marine Isotope Stage 11, edited by: Droxler, A., Poore, R. Z., and Burkle, L. H., Geophysical Monograph 137, American Geophysical Union, 131–144, 2003b. Brigham, J. K.: Marine stratigraphy and amino acid geochronology of the Gubik Formation western Arctic Coastal Plain, Alaska, US Geological Survey Open-file report, 85–381, 1985. Brigham-Grette, J. K.: Marine isotopic stage 11 high sea-level record from northwest Alaska, in: Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 11 and associated Terrestrial Records, edited by: Poore, R. Z., Burkle, L., Droxler, A., and McNulty, W. E., US Department of the Interior Open-File Report, 99–312, 19–21, 1999. Brigham-Grette, J. K. and Hopkins, D. M.: Emergent marine record and paleoclimate of the last interglaciation along the northwest Alaskan coast, Quaternary Res., 43, 154–173, 1995. Broecker, W. S., Thurber, D. L., Goddard, J., Ku, T. L., Matthews, R. K., and Mesolella, K. J.: Milankovitch hypothesis supported supported by precise dating of coral reefs and deep sea sediments, Science, 159, 297–310, 1968. Chappell, J.: Geology of coral terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea: a study of Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 85, 553–570, 1974. Chappell, J.: Jive talking, Nature, 394, 130–131, 1998. Chen, J. H., Curran, H. A., White, B., and Wasserberg, G. J.: Precise geochronology of the last interglacial period: $^234$U–$^230$Th data from fossil coral reefs in the Bahamas, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 103, 312–321, 1991. Clark, P. U. and Mix, A. C.: Ice-sheets and sea level of the Last Glacial Maximum, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 1–8, 2002. Colquhoun, D. J.: Terrace sediment complexes in central south Carolina. Columbia, University of South Carolina, 1–62, 1965. Colquhoun, D. J., Johnson, G. H., Peebles, P. C., Huddlestun, P. F., and Scott, T.: Quaternary geology of the Atlantic coastal plain, in: Quaternary nonglacial geology: Conterminous US, edited by: Morrison, R. B., The Geology of North American, K-2, Boulder, USA, 629–650, 1991. Cronin, T. M.: Vertical crustal movements Atlantic Coastal Plain, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 92, 812–833, 1981. Cronin, T. M., Szabo, B. J., Ager, T. A., Hazel, J. E., and Owens, J. P.: Quaternary climates and sea levels of the U.S. Atlantic coastal plain, Science, 211, 233–240, 1981. Cronin, T. M., Bybell, L. M., Poore, R. Z., Blackwelder, B. W., Liddicoat, J. C., and Hazel, J. E.: Age and correlation of emerged Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits, U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 47, 21–51, 1984. Droxler, A. W. and Farrell, J. W.: Marine Isotope Stage 11 (MIS 11): New insights for a warmer future, Global Planet. Change, 24, 1–5, 2000. Dutton, A., Bard, E., Antonioli, F., Esat, T. M., Lambeck, K., and McCulloch, M. T.: Phasing and amplitude of sea-level and climate change during the penultimate interglacial, Nat. Geosci., 2, 355–359, 2009. Emiliani, C.: Pleistocene temperatures, J. Geol., 63, 538–578, 1955. Edwards, R. L., Cutler, K. B., Cheng, H., and Gallup, C. D.: Geochemical Evidence for Quaternary Sea-level Changes, Chapter 17, v.6, in: Treatise on Geochemistry, edited by: Holland, H. D., Turekian, K. K., and Elderfield, H., 6, 343–364, 2004. Fairbridge, R. W.: Eustatic changes in sea-level, Phys. Chem. Earth, 4, 99–185, 1961. Ferranti, L., Antonioli, F., Mauz, B., Amorosi, A., Dai Pra, G., Mastronuzzie, G., Monaco, C., Orr\`u, P., Pappalardoh, M., Radtke, U., Renda, P., Romano, P., Sansò, P., and Verrubbi, V.: Markers of the last interglacial sea-level high stand along the coast of Italy: Tectonic implications, Quatern. Int., 145–146, 30–54, 2006. Gallup, C. D., Cheng, H., Taylor, F. W., and Edwards, R. L.: Direct Determination of the Timing of Sea Level Change During Termination II, Science, 295, 310–313, 2002. Giordana, G., Esposito, A., De Rita, D., Fabbri, M., Mazzini, I., Trigari, A., Carlo Rosa, C., and Funiciello, R.: The sedimentation along the Roman Coast between Middle and Upper Pleistocene: the interplay of eustatism tectonics and volcanism, new data and review, Il Quaternario, 16, 115–121, 2003. Harmon, R. S., Mitterer, R. M., Kriauskul, N., Land, L. S., Schwarz, H. P., Garrett, P., Larson, G. J., Vacher, H. L., and Rowe, M.: U-series and amino acid racemization geochronology of Bermuda: implications for eustatic sea-level over the past 250,000 years, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 44, 41–70, 1983. Hearty, P. J.: The geology of Eluthera Island, Bahamas: a Rosetta Stone of Quaternary stratigraphy and sea-level history, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 17, 333–355, 1998a. Hearty, P. J.: Boulder deposits from large waves during the last interglaciation on north Eluthera island, Bahamas, Quaternary Res., 50, 309–322, 1998b. Hearty, P. J.: The Kaèna highstand of Oàhu, Hawaii: further evidence of Antarctic ice collapse during the Middle Pleistocene, Pacific Science, 56, 65–81, 2002. Hearty, P. J. and Kaufman, D. S.: Whole-Rock aminostratigraphy and Quaternary sea-level history of the Bahamas, Quaternary Res., 54, 163–173, 2000. Hearty, P. J., Kindler, P., Cheng, H., and Edwards, R. L.: A +20 m middle Pleistocene sea-level highstand (Bermuda and the Bahamas) due to partial collapse of Antarctic ice, Geology, 27, 375–378, 1999. Howard, W.: A warm future in the past, Nature, 388, 418–419, 1997. Jouannic, C., Hantoro, W. S., Hoang, C. T., Fournier, M., Lafont, R., and Ichtam, M. L.: Quaternary raised reef terraces at cape Laundi, Sumba, Indonesia: geomorphological analysis and first radiometric Th/U and $^14$C age determinations, in: 6th Proceedings International coral reef symposium, edited by: Steneck, R. S., Choat, J. H., Barnes, D., and Borowitzka, M. A., Townsville, Australia, 2, 441–447, 1988. Kindler, P. and Hearty, P. J.: Elevated marine terraces from Eluthera (Bahamas) and Bermuda: sedimentological, petrographic and geochronological evidence for important deglaciation events during the middle Pleistocene, Global Planet. Change, 24, 41–58, 2000. Karner, D. B. and Marra, F.: Correlation of fluviodeltaic aggradationsal sections with glacial climate history: a revision of the Pleistocene stratigraphy of Rome, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 748–758, 1998a. Karner, D. B. and Marra, F.: $^40$Ar/$^39$Ar dating of Glacial termination V and the duration of marine isotopic stage 11, in: Earth's Climate and Orbital Eccentricity: The Marine Isotope Stage 11, edited by: Droxler, A., Poore, R. Z., and Burkle, L. H., Geophysical Monograph 137, American Geophysical Union, 61–68, 2003. Karner, D. H. and Renne, P. R.: $^40$Ar/$^39$Ar geochronology of Roman volcanic province tephra in the Tiber river valley: age calibration of middle Pleistocene sea-level changes, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 740–747, 1998. Kaufman, D. S.: Aminostratigraphy of Pliocene-Pleistocene high sea-level deposits, Nome coastal plain and adjacent near shore are, Alaska, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 104, 40–52, 1992. Kaufman, D. S. and Brigham-Grette, J. K.: Aminostratigraphic correlations and paleotemperature implications, Piocene-Pleistocene high sea-level deposits northwestern Alaska, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 12, 21–33, 1993. Lambeck, K. and Nakada, M.: Constraints on the age and duration of the last interglacial period and on sea-level variations, Nature, 357, 125–128, 1992. Land, L. S., Mackenzie, F. T., and Gould, S. J: The Pleistocene history of Bermuda, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 78, 993–1006, 1967. Lea, D. W., Martin, P. A., Pak, D. K., and Spero, H. J.: Reconstructing a 350 ky history of sea-level using planktonic Mg/Ca and oxygen isotopic records from a Cocos Ridge core, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21(1–3), 283–293, 2002. Lewis, S. G.: Eastern England, in: A revised correlation of Quaternary deposits in the British Isles, edited by: Bowen, D. Q., Geol. Soc. Lond., Spec. Rep., 23, 10–27, 1999. Loutre, M. F. and Berger, A.: Marine isotope stage 11 as an analogue for the present interglacial, Global Planet. Change, 36, 209–217, 2003. Lundberg, J. and McFarlane, D. A.: Isotope stage 11 sea-level in the Netherlands Antilles, Geological Society of America Programme with Abstracts 34, 6, 31, 2002. Malde, H.: Geology of the Charleston phosphate area, South Carolina, US Geological Survey Bulletin, 1079, 1–105, 1959. McCartan, L.: Studies related to the Charleston, South Carolina, Earthquake of 1886 – Neogene and Quaternary lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy, US Geological Survey, 1367, A1–139, 1988. McCartan, L., Weems, R. E., Lemon Jr., E. M.: The Wando Formation (upper Pleistocene) in the Charleston, S.C. area, in Contributions to stratigraphy, US Geological Survey Bulletin, 1502-A, A110–A116, 1980. McCartan, L., Owens, J. P., Blackwelder, B. W., Szabo, B. J., Belknap, D. F., Kriausakul, N., Mitterer, R. M., and Wehmiller, J. F.: Comparison of amino acid racemization geochronometry, with lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, uranium-series coral dating and magnetostratigraphy in the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States, Quaternary Res., 18, 337–359, 1982. McCartan, L., Lemon Jr., E. M, and Weems, R. E.: Geologic map of the area between Charleston and Orangeburg, South Carolina, US Geological Survey Map I-1472, 1984. McManus, J. F., Oppo, D. W., and Cullen, J. L.: A 0.5-million-year record of millennial-scale climate variability in the North Atlantic, Science, 283, 971–975, 1999. McManus, J., Oppo, D., Cullen, J., and Healey, S.: Marine Isotope Stage 11 (MIS 11): analog for Holocene and future climate, in: Earth's Climate and Orbital Eccentricity: The Marine Isotope Stage 11, edited by: Droxler, A., Poore, R. Z., and Burkle, L. H., Geophysical Monograph 137, American Geophysical Union, 69–85, 2003. McMurtry, G. M., Tappin, D. R., Sedwick, P. N., Wilkinson, I., Fietzke, J., and Sellwood, B.: Elevated marine deposits in Bermuda record a late Quaternary megatsunami, Sed. Geol., 200(3–4), 155–165, 2007. Mesolella, K. J., Matthews, R. K., Broecker, W. S., and Thurber, D. L.: The astronomical theory of climatic change: data, J. Geol., 77, 250–274, 1969. Miller, G. H., Mode, W. N., Wolfe, A. P., Sauer, P. E., Bennike, O., Forman, S. L., Short, S. K., and Stafford Jr., T. W.: Stratified interglacial lacustrine sediments from Baffin Island, Arctic Canada: chronology and paleoenvironmental implications, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 18, 789–810, 1999. Mirecki, J., Wehmiller, J. F., and Skinner, A. F.: Geochronology of Quaternary Coastal Plain deposits, Southeastern Virginia, USA, J. Coastal Res., 11, 1135–1144,1995. Mix, A. C., Pisias, N. G., Rugh, W., Wilson, J., Morey, A., and Hagelberg, T. K.: Benthic foraminifera stable isotope record from SITE 849 (0–5 Ma): local and global climate changes, in: Proceedings ODP Scientific Results, edited by: Mayer, L. A., Janecek, T. R., Palmer-Julson, A., and van Andel, T. H., 138, 371–412, 1995. Muhs, D. R.: Evidence for the timing and duration of the last interglacial period from high precision uranium series ages of corals on tectonically stable coastlines, Quaternary Res., 58, 36–40, 2002. Muhs, D. R., Simmons, K. R., Kennedy, G. L., and Rockwell, T. K.: The last interglacial period on the Pacific Coast of North America: timing and paleoclimate, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 114, 569–592, 2002. Muhs, D. R. and Szabo, B. J.: New uranium-series ages of the Waimanalo Limestone, Oahu, Hawaii: implications for sea-level during the last interglacial period, Mar. Geol., 118, 315–326, 1994. Muhs, D. R., Simmons, K. R., and Steinke, B.: Timing and warmth of the last interglacial period: new U-series evidence from Hawaii and Bermuda and a new fossil compilation for North America, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 1355–1383, 2002. Muhs, D. R., Rockwell, T. K., and Kennedy, G. L.: Late Quaternary uplift rates of marine terraces on the Pacific Coast of North America, Southern Oregon to Baja California Sur, Quatern. Int., 15–16, 121–133, 1992. Muhs, D. R., Wehmiller, J. F., Simmons, K., and York, L. L.: Quaternary sea-level history of the United States, in: The Quaternary Period in the United States, edited by: Gillespie, A. R., Porter, S. C., and Atwater, B. F., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 147–184, 2004. Murray-Wallace, C. V.: Pleistocene coastal stratigraphy, sea-level highstands and neotectonism of the southern Australian passive continental margin – a review, J. Quatern. Sci., 17, 469–489, 2002. Murray-Wallace, C. V. and Belperio, A. P.: The last interglacial shoreline in Australia – a review, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 10, 441–461, 1991. Mylroie, J. E.: Late Quaternary sea-level position: Evidence from Bahamian carbonate deposition and dissolution cycles, Quatern. Int., 183, 61–75, 2008. Neumann, A. C. and MacIntyre, I.: Reef response to sea-level rise: Keep-up, catch-up or give-up, Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, 3, 105–110, 1985. Olson, S. L. and Hearty, P. L.: A sustained +21 m sea-level highstand during MIS 11 (400 ka): direct fossil and sedimentary evidence from Bermuda, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 28, 271–285, 2009. Oppo, D. W., McManus, J. F., and Cullen, J. L.: Evolution and demise of the Last Interglacial warmth in the subpolar North Atlantic, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 3268–3277, 2006. Peltier, W. R.: Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the ice-age Earth, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 32, 111–149, 2004. Pillans, B., Chappell, J. W. C., and Naish, T. R.: A review of the Milankovitch climatic beat: template for Plio-Pleistocene sea-level changes and sequence stratigraphy, Sed. Geol., 122, 5–21, 1998. Pirazzoli, P. A., Radtke, U., Hantoro, W. S., Jouannic, C., Hoang, C. T., Causse, C., and Borel Best, M.: A one-million-year-long sequence of marine terraces on Sumba Island, Indonesia, Mar. Geol., 109, 221–236, 1993. Potter, E.-K. and Lambeck, K.: Reconciliation of sea-level observations in the western North Atlantic during the last glacial cycle, Earth Planet Sc. Lett., 217, 171–181, 2003. Pushgar, V. S., Roof, S. R., Hopkins, D. M., and Brigham-Grette, J.: Paleogeographic and paleoclimatic significance of diatoms from Middle Pleistocene marine and glaciomarine deposits on Baldwin Peninsula, northwestern Alaska, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 152, 67–85, 1999. Rohling, E. J., Fenton, M., Jorissen, F. J., Bertrand, P., Ganssen, G., and Caulet, J. P.: Magnitudes of sea-level lowstands of the past 500,000 years, Nature, 394, 162–165, 1998. Rohling, E. J., Grant, K., Bolshaw, M., Roberts, A. P., Siddall, M., Hemleben, Vh., and Kucera, M.: Antarctic temperature and global sea level closely coupled over the past five glacial cycles, Nat. Geosci., 2, 500–504, 2009. Schellmann, G. and Radtke, U.: A revised morpho- and chronostratigraphy of the Late and Middle Pleistocene coral reef terraces on Southern Barbados (West Indies), Earth Science Reviews, 64, 157–187, 2004a. Schellman, G. and Radtke, U.: The marine Quaternary of Barbados, Kölner Geographische Arbeiten, 81, 1–137, 2004b. Shackleton, N. J.: The last interglacial in the marine and terrestrial record, Proceedings Royal Society of London, 215, 135–154, 1967. Shackleton, N. J.: Oxygen isotopes, ice volume and sea-level, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 6, 183–190, 1987. Shackleton, N. J. and Opdyke, N. D.: Oxygen isotope and palaeomagnetic stratigraphy of Equatorial Pacific core V28-238: oxygen isotope temperatures and ice volumes on a 10$^5$ year and 10$^6$ year scale, Quaternary Res., 3, 39–55, 1973. Shackleton, N. J. and Chappell, J.: Oxygen isotopes and sea level, Nature, 324, 137–140, 1986. Sibrava, V., Bowen, D. Q., and Richmond, G. M.: Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 5, 1–511, 1986. Siddall, M., Chappell, J., and Potter, E.-K.: Eustatic sea-level during past interglacials, in: The Climate of Past Interglacials, edited by: Sirocko, F., Claussen, M., Sánchez Goñi, M. F., and Litt, T., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 75–92, 2007. Stearns, H. T.: Geology of the State of Hawaii, Pacific Books, Palo Alto, 1966. Stearns, H. T.: Quaternary shorelines in the Hawaian Islands, Bernice P. Bish. Mus. B., 237, 1–57, 1978. Stein, M., Wasserburg, G. J., Aharon, P., Chen, J. H., Zhu, Z. R., Bloom, A. L., and Chappell, J.: TIMS U-series dating and stable isotopes of the last interglacial event in Papua New Guinea, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 57, 2541–2554, 1993. Stirling, C. H., Esat, T. M., Lambeck, K., and McCulloch, M. T.: Timing and duration of the last interglacial: evidence for a restricted interval of widespread coral reef growth, Earth and Planetary Sciences, 160, 745–762, 1998. Stone, G. W., Walker, N. D., Hsu, S. A., Babin, A., Liu, B., Keim. B. D., Teague, W., Mitchell, D., and Leben, R.: Hurricane Ivan`s Impact along the northern Gulf of Mexico, EOS T. Am. Geophys. Un. , 86(48), 497–501, 2005. Suggate, P.: Differential uplift of middle and late Quaternary shorelines northwest South Island, New Zealand, Quatern. Int., 15–16, 47–59, 1992. Suwa, M., von Fischer, J. C., and Bender, M. L.: Chronology reconstruction for the disturbed bottom section of the GISP2 and the GRIP ice cores: Implications for Termination II in Greenland, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D02101, doi:10.1029/2005JD006032, 2006. Szabo, B. J.: Uranium-series dating of fossil corals from marine sediments of southeastern United States Atlantic coastal plain, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull, 96, 398–406, 1985. Szabo, B. J., Ludwig, K. R., Muhs, D. R., and Simmons, K. R.: Thorium-230 ages of corals and duration of the last interglacial sea-level high stand on Oahu, Hawai\`i, Science, 266, 93–96, 1994. Thompson, W. G. and Goldstein, S. L.: Open-system coral ages reveal persistent suborbital sea-level cycles, Science, 308, 401–404, 2005. Väliranta, M., Birks, H. H., Helmens, K., Engels, S., and Piirainen, M: Early Weichselian interstadial (MIS 5c) summer temperatures were higher than today in northern Fennoscandia, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 28, 777–782, 2009. van Hengstum, P. J., Scott, D. B., and Javaux, E. J.: Foraminifera in elevated Bermudian caves provide further evidence for 21 m eustatic sea level during Marine Isotope Stage 11, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 28(19–20), 1850–1869, 2009. Veeh, H. H.: Th$^230$/U$^238$ and U$^234$/U$^238$ ages of Pleistocene high sea level stand, J. Geophys. Res., 71, 3379–3386, 1966. Vézina, J., Jones, B., and Ford, D.: Sea-level highstands of the last 500,000 years; evidence from the Ironshore Formation on Grand Cayman, British West Indies, J. Sed. Res., 69, 317–327, 1999. Waelbroeck, C., Laberyie, L., Michel, E., Duplessy, J. C., McManus, J. F., Lambeck, K., Balbon, E., and Labracherie, M.: Sea-level and deep water temperatures derived from benthic foraminifera isotopic records, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 295–306, 2002. Wehmiller, J. F., Simmons, K. R., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Martin-McNaughton, J., York, L. L., Krantz, D. E., and Shen, C.-C.: Uranium series coral ages from the US Atlantic Coastal Plain – the "80 ka problem" revisited, Quatern. Int., 120, 3–14, 2008. Wolfe, A. P., Frechette, B., Richard, P. J. H., Miller, G. H., and Forman, S. L.: Paleoecology of a >90,000-year lacustrine sequence from Fog Lake, Baffin Island, Arctic Canada, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19, 1677–1699, 1999. Zeigler, K. E., Schwartz, J. P., Droxler, A. W., Shearer, M. C., Peterson, L. Caribbean carbonate crash in Pedro Channel at subthermoclinal depth during marine isotope stage 11: a case of basin to shelf carbonate fractionation?, in: Earth's Climate and Orbital Eccentricity: The Marine Isotope Stage 11, edited by: Droxler, A., Poore, R. Z., and Burkle, L. H., Geophysical Monograph 137, American Geophysical Union, 181–204, 2003.